Separatist Trends in Indian Nationalist Politics

The Muslim League

Formation and Early Years

1. Formation (1906):
   • The All India Muslim League was founded in Dhaka in 1906, initially to safeguard the political rights of Muslims in India.
   • Aimed at promoting loyalty to the British government and protecting Muslim interests.
2. Initial Demands:
   • Advocated for separate electorates for Muslims, which was granted under the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909).

Shift Towards Separatism

1. Lucknow Pact (1916):
   • An agreement between the Congress and the Muslim League for a joint demand for self-governance.
   • Marked temporary Hindu-Muslim unity but also reinforced the idea of separate electorates.
2. Demand for Pakistan:
   • In the 1930s, under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the League began to demand a separate Muslim state.
   • The Lahore Resolution (1940) formally called for independent states for Muslims in the north-western and eastern zones of India.
3. Role in Partition:
   • The Muslim League's demand for Pakistan became more pronounced during World War II.
   • Contributed significantly to the partition of India in 1947, leading to the creation of Pakistan.

The Hindu Mahasabha

Formation and Ideology

1. Formation (1915):
   • Founded to promote Hindu unity and protect Hindu interests.
   • Reaction to the perceived favoritism towards Muslims and other minorities by the British.
2. Leadership:
   • Prominent leaders included Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, who articulated the concept of Hindutva (Hinduness) in his writings.

Activities and Policies

1. Opposition to Separate Electorates:
   • Strongly opposed the separate electorates and special privileges for Muslims.
   • Advocated for the protection of Hindu culture and heritage.
2. Relations with the Congress:
   • The Hindu Mahasabha often conflicted with the Congress, particularly on issues related to minority rights and secularism.
   • It maintained a hardline stance on Hindu identity and nationalism.

Post-1945 Developments

Political Landscape

1. World War II Impact:
   • The war weakened British control over India and intensified demands for independence.
   • The Quit India Movement (1942) had demonstrated widespread Indian resolve for immediate independence.
2. Simla Conference (1945):
   • An attempt by the British to bring Indian leaders together to agree on a framework for independence.
   • Failed due to disagreements between the Congress and the Muslim League, particularly over the issue of representation.

Negotiations for Independence

1. Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):
   • Proposed a united India with a federal structure and considerable autonomy for provinces.
   • Accepted by Congress but rejected by the Muslim League, which insisted on the creation of Pakistan.
2. Direct Action Day (1946):
   • Called by the Muslim League to demand Pakistan, leading to widespread communal riots, particularly in Calcutta.
   • Marked a turning point towards the inevitability of partition.

Partition and Independence

Mountbatten Plan

1. Announcement (1947):
   • Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, proposed the plan for partition and transfer of power.
   • Accepted by both the Congress and the Muslim League.
2. Boundary Commission:
   • Headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, tasked with drawing the borders between India and Pakistan.
   • Decisions made quickly and controversially, leading to disputes and violence.

Partition and Its Aftermath

1. Independence and Partition (August 15, 1947):
   • India gained independence from British rule and was partitioned into two dominions: India and Pakistan.
   • Pakistan consisted of two regions, West Pakistan (now Pakistan) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
2. Mass Migration and Violence:
   • The partition triggered one of the largest mass migrations in history, with Hindus and Sikhs moving to India and Muslims to Pakistan.
   • Accompanied by horrific communal violence, resulting in the deaths of an estimated one million people.
3. Long-term Consequences:
   • The partition left a lasting legacy of tension and conflict between India and Pakistan, including disputes over territories like Kashmir.
   • It also led to significant demographic and cultural shifts in both countries.