Cultural trends, 750-1200, Religious conditions: the importance of temples and monastic institutions; Sankaracharya; Islam; Sufism. Literature and Science. Alberuni’s “India”. Art and architecture

Cultural Trends (750-1200 CE)

Religious Conditions

Importance of Temples and Monastic Institutions

1. Temples:
   • Temples were not just places of worship but also cultural and social hubs.
   • They played a significant role in the economy, acting as landowners and patrons of the arts.
   • Major temples like the Brihadeeswarar Temple (Chola) and the Kailasanatha Temple (Rashtrakuta) exemplify the era's architectural and artistic achievements.
   • Temples were centers for education and learning, often hosting schools (gurukuls) and libraries.
2. Monastic Institutions:
   • Buddhist and Jain monasteries (viharas and mathas) continued to be important centers of learning and spiritual practice.
   • Monastic institutions like Nalanda and Vikramashila were renowned for their scholarly pursuits, attracting students from across Asia.

Sankaracharya (Adi Shankaracharya, 788-820 CE)

• A significant philosopher and theologian who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism).
• He traveled extensively across the Indian subcontinent, establishing four mathas (monastic centers) in different regions (Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, and Badrinath) to promote Vedic knowledge.
• His commentaries on the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahma Sutras profoundly influenced Hindu philosophy and practices.

Islam

• Islam entered India primarily through trade and later through military invasions by Arab, Turkish, and Persian forces.
• The conquest of Sind by Muhammad bin Qasim in 711 CE marked the beginning of Islamic influence.
• Over time, Muslim rulers established themselves in various parts of India, influencing local culture, administration, and economy.

Sufism

• Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam, found fertile ground in India from the 10th century onwards.
• Sufi saints like Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and Nizamuddin Auliya played a pivotal role in spreading Islam through their teachings of love, tolerance, and devotion.
• Sufi khanqahs (hospices) became centers of spiritual learning and social service.

Literature and Science

1. Literature:
   • Sanskrit literature flourished with notable works in poetry, drama, and philosophy. Kalidasa's works continued to be influential.
   • Regional languages like Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and Marathi saw significant literary contributions.
   • Bhakti poetry emerged as a major literary genre, emphasizing personal devotion to deities.
2. Science:
   • Advances in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and metallurgy were notable.
   • Mathematicians like Bhaskara II and astronomers like Aryabhata made significant contributions.
   • Works like the "Siddhanta Shiromani" by Bhaskara II highlight the scientific achievements of this period.

Alberuni’s “India” (Kitab al-Hind)

• Written by the Persian scholar Al-Biruni in the early 11th century, this work is a comprehensive account of Indian society, culture, religion, and science.
• Al-Biruni traveled to India with Mahmud of Ghazni and spent several years studying the region.
• His work provides valuable insights into the Indian subcontinent's intellectual and cultural life from an outsider's perspective.

Art and Architecture

1. Temple Architecture:
   • The Dravidian style in the south, exemplified by the Chola temples, with their towering vimanas (temple towers) and intricate sculptures.
   • The Nagara style in the north, seen in temples like the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho, characterized by their curvilinear shikharas (spires).
2. Sculpture and Painting:
   • Temples featured elaborate sculptures depicting deities, mythological scenes, and daily life.
   • The Chola bronzes, particularly the Nataraja (dancing Shiva) statues, are renowned for their artistic excellence.
3. Islamic Architecture:
   • Early Islamic architecture in India, influenced by Persian and Central Asian styles, included mosques and madrasas.
   • The construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque and the Qutub Minar in Delhi marked the beginning of Indo-Islamic architectural synthesis.