The decline of the Mughal Empire, 1707-61. Causes behind decline. Maratha power ounder the Peshwas. Regional states. The Afghans. Major elements of composite culture. Sawai Jai Singh, astronomer. Rise of Urdu language

The Decline of the Mughal Empire, 1707-1761

Causes Behind the Decline

1. Weak Successors:
   • Aurangzeb’s successors were largely ineffective, lacking the administrative and military prowess required to maintain the vast empire. The empire faced internal conflicts and succession struggles.
2. Economic Strain:
   • Continuous military campaigns, especially in the Deccan, depleted the empire’s treasury. Excessive taxation to fund these campaigns burdened the peasantry, leading to widespread agrarian distress.
3. Administrative Decay:
   • The once efficient administrative system established by Akbar began to deteriorate. Corruption became rampant among officials, weakening the central authority.
4. Maratha and Regional Resistance:
   • The rise of regional powers like the Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs, and Jats challenged Mughal dominance. The Marathas, in particular, launched effective guerrilla warfare against Mughal forces.
5. Foreign Invasions:
   • Invasions by Nadir Shah in 1739 and Ahmad Shah Abdali in the mid-18th century further weakened the empire, leading to significant territorial and economic losses.
6. Internal Rebellions:
   • Peasant uprisings and revolts by regional governors (nawabs) undermined the empire’s stability.

Maratha Power under the Peshwas

• The Peshwas, starting with Balaji Vishwanath, transformed the Maratha Confederacy into a powerful, centralized state.
• Baji Rao I (1720-1740): Expanded Maratha influence across India, implementing effective military strategies.
• Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb, 1740-1761): Continued expansion but faced significant setbacks, culminating in the defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali, which marked a turning point in Maratha fortunes.

Regional States

1. Hyderabad:
   • Founded by Asaf Jah I, it became a significant center of power in the Deccan, balancing autonomy with nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor.
2. Awadh:
   • Established by Saadat Khan, it grew into a prosperous and influential state, known for its cultural contributions and relative political stability.
3. Bengal:
   • Murshid Quli Khan established an independent rule, making Bengal a major economic and cultural hub.
4. Punjab:
   • The Sikhs under leaders like Banda Singh Bahadur and later Maharaja Ranjit Singh challenged Mughal authority and established a powerful Sikh state.

The Afghans

• Ahmad Shah Abdali (also known as Ahmad Shah Durrani) invaded India multiple times, significantly weakening the Mughal Empire.
• His victory at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 dealt a severe blow to Maratha power, creating a power vacuum in northern India.

Major Elements of Composite Culture

1. Religious Syncretism:
   • The Mughal period saw the blending of Hindu and Islamic traditions in art, architecture, and daily life. Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-Kul promoted tolerance and synthesis of diverse cultural practices.
2. Art and Architecture:
   • Mughal architecture, characterized by a fusion of Persian, Indian, and Islamic styles, produced iconic structures like the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Humayun’s Tomb.
   • The Mughal miniature painting style combined Persian and Indian elements, creating a distinctive artistic tradition.
3. Literature and Music:
   • The period saw the flourishing of classical music and dance forms, with a blending of Persian and Indian traditions.
   • Literary works in Persian and later in Urdu, along with vernacular languages, reflected the composite culture.

Sawai Jai Singh, Astronomer

• Sawai Jai Singh II (1688-1743), the ruler of Jaipur, was a notable astronomer and scholar.
• Built five astronomical observatories (Jantar Mantars) across India, including in Delhi and Jaipur, to advance the study of astronomy.
• Commissioned the compilation of astronomical tables and translated various works into Sanskrit, contributing significantly to scientific knowledge in India.

Rise of the Urdu Language

• Urdu emerged as a linguistic and cultural blend of Hindi and Persian, becoming a prominent language in the Indian subcontinent.
• The development of Urdu was influenced by the interactions between Muslim rulers and their subjects, combining Persian script and vocabulary with the grammar and syntax of local dialects.
• Prominent poets like Mir Taqi Mir and Sauda enriched Urdu literature with their ghazals and other poetic forms, making it a language of sophisticated literary expression.