The fifteenth and early 16th Century: major Provincial dynasties; Vijayanagara Empire. The Lodis, First phase of the Mughal Empire: Babur, Humayun. The Sur empire and administration. The Portuguese. Monotheistic movements: Kabir; Guru Nanak and Sikhism; Bhakti. Growth of regional literatures. Art and Culture

The Fifteenth and Early 16th Century: Key Developments

Major Provincial Dynasties

1. The Bahmani Sultanate (1347-1527)
   • Established in the Deccan region, it broke away from the Delhi Sultanate.
   • Known for cultural synthesis, promoting Persian culture and architecture, and fostering Deccani art and literature.
   • The kingdom eventually fragmented into five Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar.
2. The Gajapati Kingdom of Odisha
   • Ruled by the Gajapati dynasty, which was known for its military strength and patronage of art and architecture.
   • Prominent rulers like Kapilendra Deva extended their influence over large parts of eastern and southern India.
3. The Gujarat Sultanate (1407-1573)
   • Established by Zafar Khan Muzaffar, it became a significant center of trade and commerce.
   • Known for its architecture, including the Jama Masjid in Ahmedabad.

Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646)

• Founded by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, it became one of the most powerful South Indian empires.
• Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529): The most illustrious ruler, under whom the empire reached its zenith.
  • Promoted trade and agriculture.
  • Patronized arts, literature, and architecture, with notable constructions like the Vithala Temple and the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi.
• Known for its strong military, administrative efficiency, and a vibrant cultural milieu that integrated diverse traditions.

The Lodis (1451-1526)

• The last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, founded by Bahlul Lodi.
• Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517): Strengthened the Sultanate and moved the capital to Agra.
  • Promoted trade, agriculture, and administration.
• Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526): Faced internal dissent and external threats, culminating in the Battle of Panipat (1526) where he was defeated by Babur.

First Phase of the Mughal Empire

1. Babur (1526-1530)
   • Founder of the Mughal Empire, defeating Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat.
   • Brought a new phase of centralized administration and cultural amalgamation.
   • His memoir, the "Baburnama," provides valuable insights into his reign and the era.
2. Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556)
   • Faced challenges from Afghan nobles and Sher Shah Suri.
   • Temporarily lost the empire to Sher Shah Suri but regained it in 1555.
   • His reign was marked by instability but also laid foundations for the cultural and administrative policies of his successors.

The Sur Empire and Administration

• Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545): Overthrew Humayun and established the Sur Empire.
  • Known for administrative and military reforms, including the introduction of a more efficient revenue system and the "Patta" (title deed) and "Qabuliyat" (deed of agreement).
  • Improved infrastructure, notably the Grand Trunk Road, facilitating trade and communication.

The Portuguese in India

• Arrived in the late 15th century, establishing their first foothold in Goa (1510).
• Focused on controlling the spice trade and establishing maritime dominance.
• Introduced new crops, such as tobacco, and new technologies in shipbuilding and navigation.

Monotheistic Movements

1. Kabir (1440-1518)
   • A mystic poet and saint who criticized caste discrimination and religious orthodoxy.
   • Emphasized a personal connection with the divine, transcending religious boundaries.
2. Guru Nanak (1469-1539) and Sikhism
   • Founded Sikhism, advocating for monotheism, social equality, and community service.
   • The teachings of Guru Nanak laid the foundation for a new religious and social order, documented in the Guru Granth Sahib.
3. Bhakti Movement
   • Continued to flourish, emphasizing devotion and personal connection with deities.
   • Prominent saints included Mirabai, Tulsidas, and Surdas, who composed devotional songs in vernacular languages.

Growth of Regional Literatures

• Literature in regional languages flourished, reflecting local culture, traditions, and religious themes.
• Notable works include the "Ramcharitmanas" by Tulsidas (in Awadhi), "Padmavat" by Malik Muhammad Jayasi (in Avadhi), and the compositions of Sant Eknath and Tukaram (in Marathi).

Art and Culture

• Architecture: Blending of Persian and Indian styles, seen in the construction of mosques, palaces, and forts.
  • The development of distinct regional architectural styles under the Vijayanagara and Bahmani rulers.
• Painting: The emergence of early Mughal and Rajput painting styles.
  • Introduction of new techniques and themes, influenced by Persian miniature painting.
• Music and Dance: Patronage of classical music and dance forms, including the development of distinct styles like Carnatic music in the south.