Pastoral and farming communities outside the Indus Valley region played a significant role in the development of prehistoric cultures across the Indian subcontinent from the Neolithic to the early Iron Age. These communities were distributed across various geographical regions, each characterized by distinct cultural practices, technological advancements, and adaptations to their environments.
Geographical Distribution and Characteristics
Neolithic Phase (circa 7000–2000 BCE)
1. South India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh)
- Sites: Hallur, Kodekal, Utnur, and Sanganakallu in Karnataka; Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
- Characteristics:
- Agriculture: Early evidence of millet cultivation along with pulses and tubers. Some sites also show evidence of rice and wheat cultivation.
- Tools: Polished stone tools, including axes and adzes.
- Settlements: Semi-permanent settlements with circular or rectangular huts made of mud and thatch.
- Pottery: Handmade pottery with simple decorations. Red and black ware are common.
2. Eastern India (Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal)
- Sites: Chirand (Bihar), Pandu Rajar Dhibi (West Bengal).
- Characteristics:
- Agriculture: Cultivation of rice, barley, and legumes.
- Tools: Stone tools including celts and microliths. Bone tools are also found.
- Settlements: Evidence of pit dwellings and wattle-and-daub structures.
- Pottery: Wheel-made pottery appears later. Cord-impressed ware is notable.
3. Western India (Gujarat, Rajasthan)
- Sites: Loteshwar and Dholavira (Gujarat); Ahar and Balathal (Rajasthan).
- Characteristics:
- Agriculture: Mixed farming with wheat, barley, and legumes. Evidence of animal domestication, including cattle, sheep, and goats.
- Tools: Microlithic tools and later copper tools.
- Settlements: Early Chalcolithic settlements with evidence of storage facilities and granaries.
- Pottery: Black-and-red ware and plain red ware are common.
Chalcolithic Phase (circa 3000–1500 BCE)
1. Deccan Region (Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh)
- Sites: Inamgaon, Daimabad, and Nevasa in Maharashtra.
- Characteristics:
- Agriculture: Advanced agricultural practices with evidence of irrigation.
- Tools: Continued use of stone tools with the introduction of copper tools.
- Settlements: Larger, more permanent settlements with complex social structures.
- Pottery: Distinctive Jorwe culture pottery with painted designs.
2. Central India (Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh)
- Sites: Navdatoli, Kayatha, and Eran in Madhya Pradesh.
- Characteristics:
- Agriculture: Diverse crop patterns including wheat, barley, and millet.
- Tools: Use of both stone and copper tools.
- Settlements: Permanent villages with evidence of craft specialization.
- Pottery: Malwa and Kayatha cultures with distinctive ceramic styles.
3. Southern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)
- Sites: Utnur, Tekkalakota, and Brahmagiri in Karnataka; Piklihal and Hallur in Andhra Pradesh.
- Characteristics:
- Agriculture: Intensive agriculture with the use of irrigation systems.
- Tools: Continued use of polished stone tools, with gradual introduction of iron.
- Settlements: Well-planned villages with stone structures and burial sites.
- Pottery: Various regional styles including Black-and-Red ware and Russet-Coated Painted Ware.
Early Iron Age (circa 1500–500 BCE)
1. Northern India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar)
- Sites: Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, and Ahichchhatra in Uttar Pradesh; Chirand in Bihar.
- Characteristics:
- Agriculture: Continued agricultural expansion with advanced tools.
- Tools: Iron tools become widespread, significantly enhancing agricultural productivity.
- Settlements: Emergence of larger urban centers with fortifications.
- Pottery: Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture, associated with early Vedic settlements.
2. Southern India (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala)
- Sites: Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu), Brahmagiri, Maski, and T. Narsipur (Karnataka).
- Characteristics:
- Agriculture: Intensified use of iron tools in farming.
- Tools: Widespread use of iron for tools and weapons.
- Settlements: Large megalithic burial sites indicating complex social structures.
- Pottery: Megalithic pottery including Black-and-Red ware and Russet-Coated Painted Ware.
3. Western India (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan)
- Sites: Prabhas Patan and Rangpur in Gujarat; Jorwe and Daimabad in Maharashtra.
- Characteristics:
- Agriculture: Diverse and intensified agricultural practices.
- Tools: Iron tools alongside copper and bronze artifacts.
- Settlements: Large, fortified settlements with evidence of social stratification.
- Pottery: Regional variations with advanced ceramic technology.
