The Mughal Empire, 1556-1707. Akbar: conquests, administrative measures, jagir and mansab systems; policy of sulh-i-kul. Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb: expansion in the Deccan; religious policies. Shivaji. Culture: Persian and regional literatures. Religious thought: Abul Fazl; Maharashtra dharma. Painting. Architecture. Economy: conditions of peasants and artisans, growth in trade; commerce with Europe. Social stratification and status of women

The Mughal Empire, 1556-1707

Akbar (1556-1605)

Conquests:

• Consolidated Mughal rule in northern India by defeating Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556).
• Expanded the empire significantly, annexing Gujarat, Bengal, Rajasthan, and parts of the Deccan.

Administrative Measures:

• Established a centralized administrative system with various departments and an efficient bureaucracy.
• Introduced revenue reforms like the "Raiyatwari" and "Zabt" systems, standardizing tax collection based on land measurement and productivity.

Jagir and Mansab Systems:

• The Jagir system involved granting land revenues to officials and military personnel in return for their services.
• The Mansab system was a ranking system for the military and bureaucracy, determining the number of troops an official could command and his salary.

Policy of Sulh-i-Kul (Universal Peace):

• Promoted religious tolerance and inclusivity, encouraging dialogue and understanding among different religious communities.
• Abolished the jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims) and initiated a policy of "Sulh-i-Kul" (peace with all), fostering a pluralistic society.

Jahangir (1605-1627)

Expansion:

• Continued Akbar’s expansionist policies, though with less intensity.
• Consolidated Mughal control over Bengal and parts of the Deccan.

Religious Policies:

• Maintained Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance, though with slight deviations.
• Patronized arts and culture, including the development of Mughal painting and literature.

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

Expansion:

• Focused on expanding the Mughal Empire in the Deccan, successfully annexing regions like Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda.
• Conducted military campaigns in Central Asia, though with limited success.

Religious Policies:

• Slightly more orthodox than Akbar and Jahangir but generally continued their policy of relative religious tolerance.
• Patronized large-scale architectural projects, including the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, and the Jama Masjid.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

Expansion in the Deccan:

• Expanded Mughal control over the Deccan, incorporating Bijapur and Golconda into the empire.
• Faced continuous resistance from the Marathas, led by Shivaji.

Religious Policies:

• Reversed many of Akbar’s liberal policies, re-imposing the jizya and enforcing stricter Sharia law.
• Destroyed several Hindu temples and restricted the construction of new ones, leading to increased religious tensions.

Shivaji (1630-1680)

• Founder of the Maratha Empire, Shivaji successfully resisted Mughal expansion in the Deccan.
• Known for his innovative military tactics, strategic fortifications, and effective administration.
• Promoted regional culture and traditions, establishing a strong Maratha identity.

Culture

Persian and Regional Literatures:

• Persian literature flourished, with poets and writers producing significant works under Mughal patronage.
• Regional literatures, such as Hindi, Bengali, and Marathi, also saw considerable growth, influenced by the Bhakti and Sufi movements.

Religious Thought:

• Abul Fazl, Akbar's court historian, wrote the "Akbarnama" and the "Ain-i-Akbari," documenting the administration, culture, and religious philosophy of Akbar's reign.
• Maharashtra Dharma: A socio-religious movement in Maharashtra that emphasized personal devotion to God, social equality, and ethical conduct.

Painting:

• Mughal painting reached its zenith, blending Persian, Indian, and European styles.
• Famous works include miniature paintings depicting court scenes, battles, and flora and fauna.

Architecture:

• Mughal architecture combined Persian, Indian, and Islamic styles.
• Notable structures include the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, Humayun’s Tomb, and the Jama Masjid.

Economy

Conditions of Peasants and Artisans:

• The majority of the population were peasants who faced heavy taxation and often lived in subsistence conditions.
• Artisans formed a crucial part of the economy, producing goods for local consumption and export.

Growth in Trade:

• The Mughal Empire became a major trade hub, dealing in textiles, spices, and precious stones.
• Trade with Europe expanded, with the Portuguese, Dutch, and English establishing trading posts in India.

Social Stratification and Status of Women

Social Stratification:

• Society was hierarchical, with the Mughal nobility and landed aristocracy at the top, followed by merchants, artisans, and peasants.
• Caste distinctions were prevalent among Hindus, while Muslims had their own social hierarchies.

Status of Women:

• Women in royal and noble families enjoyed certain privileges, including property rights and participation in administrative affairs.
• However, women in general faced restrictions, including purdah (veil), limited educational opportunities, and restricted social mobility.
• Practices like child marriage and sati (self-immolation of widows) were prevalent, though they were challenged by reform movements later.